Contents
Configuration interaction 251
Brief illustration 29.1: Configuration interaction 252
Example 29.1: Finding the energy lowering due to CI 252
Many-body perturbation theory 253
Example 29.2: Setting up Møller–Plesset perturbation theory 254
Checklist of concepts 254
Checklist of equations 255
Why do...
Chapter
Ab initio methods
Chapter
Absolute entropy
This chapter studies the molecular interpretation of entropy and how it relates to the
third law of thermodynamics. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropies of
all perfectly crystalline substances are the same at T = 0. By convention
(and as justified statistically), S(0) = 0 for all perfectly ordered
crystalline materials. The standard molar entropy is the molar entropy of a substance in its
standard state (pure, at 1 bar) at the temperature of interest. Meanwhile, the statistical
entropy is the entropy calculated from the Boltzmann formula, as the logarithm of the weight
of a configuration. The chapter then looks at the residual entropy of a solid, which is the
contribution to the entropy at T = 0 from positional disorder that is
frozen in.
Chapter
Acid–base equilibria of salts in water
This chapter studies the acid–base equilibria of salt solutions. The ions that a dissolved
salt provide are themselves either acids or bases, sometimes both. Acidity constants can be
used to predict the pH of solutions, and that information in turn can be used to account for
the variation of pH during the course of a titration. That information is also helpful as a
guide to the selection of solutes that stabilize the pH of solutions. The chapter looks at
acid–base titrations, explaining how the pH of a mixed solution of a weak acid and its
conjugate base is given by the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation. It then considers the buffer
action, examining the buffer solution and differentiating between an acid buffer and a base
buffer.
Chapter
Activities
This chapter describes how the extension of the concept of chemical potential to
real solutions involves introducing an effective concentration called an ‘activity’.
In certain cases, the activity may be interpreted in terms of intermolecular
interactions; an important example is a solution containing ions. Such solutions
often deviate considerably from ideal behaviour on account of the strong, long-range
interactions between the charged species. The chapter shows how a model can be used
to estimate the deviations from ideal behaviour when the solution is very dilute,
and how to extend the resulting expressions to more concentrated solutions. It looks
at the Margules equations, the Debye–Hückel theory, and the Debye–Hückel limiting
law.
Chapter
Adiabatic changes
This chapter describes adiabatic processes, which occur without the transfer of
energy as heat. It focuses on reversible adiabatic changes involving perfect gases.
The temperature of a gas falls when it expands adiabatically in a thermally
insulated container. Work is done, but as no heat enters the system, the internal
energy falls, and therefore the temperature of the gas also falls. In molecular
terms, the kinetic energy of the molecules falls as work is done, so their average
speed decreases, and hence the temperature falls too. The chapter then looks at how
an adiabat is a curve showing how pressure varies with volume in an adiabatic
process.
Chapter
Adsorption and desorption
This chapter looks at the extent to which molecules attach themselves to a surface,
which is crucial to understanding the way in which a surface influences chemical
processes. It discusses the extent of adsorption that can be explored with the aid
of some simple models that allow quantitative predictions to be made about how the
extent of surface coverage varies with both pressure and temperature. It also
demonstrates how surfaces can affect the rates of chemical reactions by assessing
the extent of surface coverage and the factors that determine the rates at which
molecules attach to and detach from solid surfaces. The chapter outlines the extent
of surface coverage that can be expressed in terms of isotherms derived on the basis
of dynamic equilibria between adsorbed and free molecules.
Chapter
Adsorption and desorption
Contents
Adsorption isotherms 922
The Langmuir isotherm 922
Using the Langmuir isotherm 923
The isosteric enthalpy of adsorption 924
Measuring the isosteric enthalpy of adsorption 925
The BET isotherm 925
Using the BET isotherm 927...
Chapter
1Advanced EPR techniques
This chapter explains the basic theory of continuous wave (CW) electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), illustrating the power of the technique to study a wide range of paramagnetic systems. It cites several experiments based on pulsed techniques similar to those routinely employed in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. It also talks about how Pulse EPR can offer significant advantages over CW methods, such as direct detection of relaxation times and access to longer distances between paramagnetic centres. The chapter talks about the independent control of the electron and nuclear spins via the application of short microwave (MW) and radiofrequency (RF) pulses. It presents the vector model and product operator formalism used in pulse techniques.
Chapter
The analysis of molecular shape
Contents
Symmetry operations and symmetry elements 275
Brief illustration 31.1: Symmetry elements 276
The symmetry classification of molecules 276
Brief illustration 31.2: Symmetry classification 277
The groups C
1, C
i, and C
s
278
Brief illustration 31.3: C...
Chapter
Anisotropic EPR spectra in the solid state
This chapter explores the origins of the anisotropies in g and A for a spin. It explains how symmetry derived anisotropies in the solid state are manifested through g and how the interpretation of this tensor provides valuable information on the symmetry of the paramagnetic centre. It also concentrates on the lineshapes for powder spectra and the origins of the hyperfine A tensor. The chapter considers the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra of a paramagnetic vanadyl and presents the theory explaining the origins of anisotropies. It describes a tensor as a mathematical object that illustrates a physical property and outlines the rank of the tensor that depends on the number of directions needed to describe that property.
Chapter
Appendix
Solutions to problems
1 Classical mechanics
1.1
(a) v
1 = –3/4u
v
2 = 1/4u
(b) Fraction of original KE lost = 1/8
1.2
Equatorial gravitational field strength = –9.841m s–2
Polar gravitational field strength = –9.906 m s–2...
Chapter
Applications of symmetry
This chapter explores the applications of symmetry while referring to group theory
as a significant tool for constructing molecular orbitals and formulating
spectroscopic selection rules. It explains how group theory provides simple criteria
for deciding whether certain integrals necessarily vanish. Additionally, character
tables can be used to determine whether an integral is necessarily zero. The
integrand must include a transforming component as the totally symmetric irreducible
represent to acknowledge an integral to be non-zero. The chapter also expounds on
the concept of symmetry-adapted linear combination (SALC) as a linear combination of
atomic orbitals constructed from equivalent atoms and having a specified
symmetry.
Chapter
Applications of symmetry
Contents
Vanishing integrals 291
Integrals over the product of two functions 292
Example 33.1: Deciding if an integral must be zero 1 292
Decomposition of a direct product 293
Brief illustration 33.1: Decomposition of a direct product 293
Integrals over products...
Chapter
The approach to equilibrium
This chapter addresses how all forward reactions are accompanied by their reverse
reactions. Close to the start of a reaction, when little or no product is present, the rate
of the reverse reaction is negligible. However, as the concentration of products increases,
the rate at which they decompose into reactants becomes greater. At equilibrium, the reverse
rate matches the forward rate and the reactants and products are present in abundances given
by the equilibrium constant for the reaction. The chapter then considers the term
relaxation, which denotes the return of a system to equilibrium. It is used in chemical
kinetics to indicate that an externally applied influence has shifted the equilibrium
position of a reaction, normally abruptly, and that the reaction is adjusting to the
equilibrium composition characteristic of the new conditions. Relaxation methods include the
temperature jump technique.
Chapter
The Arrhenius equation
This chapter discusses how rate constants of most reactions increase with
increasing temperature. It introduces the ‘Arrhenius equation’, which captures this
temperature dependence by using two parameters that can be determined
experimentally. It also reviews the exploration of the dependence of reaction rates
on temperature that leads to the formulation of theories that reveal the details of
the processes that occur when reactant molecules meet and undergo reaction. The
chapter looks at the temperature dependence of the rate of a reaction that depends
on the activation energy and the minimum energy needed for reaction to occur in an
encounter between reactants. It emphasizes how chemical reactions usually go faster
as the temperature is raised, which is almost always due to the increase of the rate
constant with temperature.
Chapter
The Arrhenius equation
Contents
The temperature dependence of reaction rates 816
Example 85.1: Determining the Arrhenius parameters 817
Brief illustration 85.1: The Arrhenius equation 817
The interpretation of the Arrhenius parameters 818
A first look at the energy requirements of reactions 818
Brief illustration 85.2:...
Book
Peter Atkins, Julio de Paula, and James Keeler
Physical Chemistry provides a comprehensive overview of this topic. It
starts off with looking into the properties of gases. It then covers the First, Second, and
Third Laws. Next it looks into physical transformations of pure substances, simple mixtures,
and chemical equilibrium. The text also considers quantum theory, atomic structure and
spectra, molecular structure, molecular symmetry, and molecular spectroscopy. There follows
a chapter about magnetic resonance. The text then looks at statistical thermodynamics. The
last quarter of the book considers molecular interactions, solids, molecules in motion,
chemical kinetic, and reaction dynamics. The last chapter covers processes at solid
surfaces.
Chapter
Atomic orbitals
This chapter takes a look at the atomic orbital, which is a one-electron wavefunction describing the spatial distribution of an electron in an atom. Atomic orbitals are used throughout chemistry in discussions of the electronic structure of atoms in general and in discussions of molecular electronic structure. This chapter extends the discussion of atomic structure to include the effect of nuclear charge by considering one-electron ions with higher atomic numbers. It shows how hydrogenic atoms are important because the Schrödinger equation can be solved for them. Furthermore, the concepts learned from a study of hydrogenic atoms can be used to describe the structures of many-electron atoms and of molecules too. To that end the chapter takes a look at the energy levels of hydrogenic atoms as well as the wavefunctions of hydrogenic atoms.
Chapter
Atomic spectra
This chapter explains the general idea behind atomic spectroscopy. It details how
lines in the spectrum (in either emission or absorption) occur when the electron
distribution in an atom undergoes a transition wherein its energy changes by ΔE. The
spectra of many-electron atoms are more complicated than that of hydrogenic atoms.
Even though similar principles apply, Coulombic and magnetic interactions between
the electrons give rise to a variety of energy differences, which are summarized by
constructing term symbols. The chapter notes how total angular momentum in light
atoms is obtained based on Russell–Saunders coupling, while
jj-coupling is used for heavy atoms.
Chapter
Atomic spectroscopy
This chapter considers atomic spectroscopy as an important way of determining the energies
of electrons in atoms and reviews the spectra of hydrogenic atoms and many-electron atoms.
It highlights the concept of selection rules which is used to predict which spectroscopic
transitions can be observed. It also analyzes the spectra of many-electron atoms which are
more complicated than those of hydrogen as they are influenced by the Coulombic and magnetic
interactions of electrons. The chapter describes the term symbols and shows how these are
based on the various contributions to the total angular momentum of the electrons. It
details how spectroscopic measurements confirm the theoretical prediction that the energy
levels of atoms correlate with the contributions to the total angular momentum of their
electrons.