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Book

Cover Animal Developmental Biology
Animal Development Biology introduces the subject of developmental biology through a wide range of organisms, offering insights into the fundamental principles that shape life's diverse and extraordinary forms. It covers all the essential topics, including cell biology, cell signalling, cell specialization, the genomic control of development, evidence for evolution, and cell ageing and death. The chapters present different aspects of developmental biology, providing a robust basis for understanding the molecular and morphological events that occur during embryo development, but that are also important in adult homeostasis, regeneration, and disease. It looks into the secrets of stem cells, the marvels of regeneration, and the paradox of how a broadly conserved genome can support the biodiversity we see throughout the natural world.

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Cover Zoo Animals

Animal identification and record-keeping  

This chapter explains the identification and record-keeping of animals. It highlights the importance of keeping records such as maintaining health and welfare and aiding in conservation for captive management programmes. The chapter discusses the science behind binomial nomenclature and taxonomy. It includes a discussion on giving a temporary or permanent name to an animal such as the branding, rings, ear tags, and microchips. It looks at the degrees of intervention, invasiveness, and pain that results from these procedures. Next, the chapter shares the requirements of individual records in accordance with the Secretary of State’s Standards of Modern Zoo Practice (SSSMZP). Additionally, it notes that the International Species Information System (ISIS) has computer software formulated for zoo record-keeping.

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Cover Zoo Animals

Animal welfare  

This chapter focuses on animal welfare, which is defined as the study of an animal’s quality of life. The chapter lists environment, behaviour restrictions, and adaptation to captivity as factors affecting the welfare of zoo animals. It examines the indices used to evaluate zoo animal welfare such as life-history traits, self-directed behaviours, health, and biological processes. On the topic of meeting the needs of zoo animals, the chapter considers the concept of five freedoms, which encompasses the basic needs of captive animals ranging from malnutrition, discomfort, pain, expressing natural behaviours, and distress. The chapter highlights how legislation ensures that the best practice for animal welfare is implemented.

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Behaviour  

This chapter looks at the behaviour of animals as they respond to their environments. It specifically refers here to zoos. Ethograms are referred to as a catalogue of all kinds of behaviours seen in animals of a particular species. The chapter discusses major kinds of learning such as habituation, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and imprinting. It highlights the importance of motivation in an animal’s behaviour and considers behavioural ecology, whichlooks into the evolution of behaviour within the context of an animal’s ecology. Additionally, the chapter talks about different sorts of mating systems such as monogamy, polygamy, and promiscuity. It compares animal behaviour in enclosures and in the wild.

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Cover Zoo Animals

Conservation  

This chapter focuses on the concept of conservation in zoos. Conservation of endangered species is one of the major goals of accredited zoos. The chapter defines conservation biology as the study of methods for maintaining biodiversity. It highlights the role of zoos in the conservation of biodiversity by referencing maintenance of captive stocks, support for in situ conservation, education, and research. The chapter differentiates between ex situ and in situ conservations. It lists the frameworks for zoo conservation such as the World Zoo and Aquarium Conservation Strategy (WZACS). The chapter presents reintroduction as one of the key goals of the many captive management programmes.

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Cover Animal Developmental Biology

Creating diverse and extreme body plans  

This chapter examines the major strategies used in regional patterning as embryos develop. It starts with creating diverse and extreme body plans using body segmentation, which occurs after gastrulation during a process of somitogenesis. Meanwhile, the strategy of mix-and-match regional patterning involves the Hox genes code for special transcription factors that drive regional pattern specification. The chapter also examines the process for creating diverse and extreme body plans through the alteration of limb development. It looks into what changes occur after the process of limb regeneration in a number of animals. It notes that later stages of growth and patterning appear very similar to limb development.

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Cover Animal Developmental Biology

Embryo origami  

This chapter explores the fascination of embryo origami. It provides an overview of the process of gastrulation, organogenesis, neurulation, and differentiation. Embryo origami occurs as the embryo develops, and a single cell transforms into sheets of cells to form complex three-dimensional organisms complete with tissues, organs, and organ systems. The chapter considers the intricacy of cell movements relative to one another that are used both during gastrulation and during the formation of the central nervous system. It explains that the differentiation of cells is often induced by complex patterns of epigenetic modification that radically alter gene expression patterns within the differentiating cells.

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Cover Zoo Animals

Environmental enrichment  

This chapter focuses on environmental enrichment. It begins by discussing the evolution of enrichment as a concept. It explains that behavioural enrichment aims to successfully stimulate desirable behaviours, increase activity, and provide an easy method for monitoring the health of zoo animals. The chapter highlights the aims and goals of enrichment such as generating behavioural change in target animals. It then lists the types of enrichment and their function: food-based enrichment, physical enrichment, sensory enrichment, social enrichment, and cognitive enrichment. Next, the chapter notes the process of evaluating enrichment. It highlights the challenges posed by novelty and habituation when assessing how long the enrichment is effective. Additionally, the chapter mentions the benefits of environmental enrichment such as promoting breeding and the interaction of an animal with its environment.

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Cover Zoo Animals

Feeding and nutrition  

This chapter focuses on the feeding and nutrition of zoo animals. It discusses feeding ecology while looking at different categories of animals such as omnivores, carnivores, and herbivores. The chapter also discusses basic nutritional theory alongside the dietary requirements of animals, covering metabolizable energy. It introduces Zootrition asa major nutritional software package and database which includes an energy requirement calculating the basal metabolic rate (BMR). Additionally, the chapter alludes to the guidelines and legislation on feeding zoo animals in the UK and European Union. It then turns to discussing the storage, preparation, supply, and presentation of food given to animals. It highlights possible nutritional problems of zoo animals such as metabolic bone diseases, iron storage disease, malnutrition, mineral deficiencies, and obesity.

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Cover Animal Developmental Biology

The good, the bad, and the old: developmental principles in regeneration and ageing  

This chapter discusses developmental principles of regeneration and ageing. It highlights how some animals, compared to humans, undergo drastic transformations or avoid elements of ageing as they age. Regenerative capacity depends on the innate abilities of stem cells and the types of signals from the niche surrounding those stem cells. Epigenetic drift refers to the phenomenon of age-related deregulation of epigenetic regulation that can result in altered patterns of global gene expression with age. The chapter also notes how multipotent stem cells are used in mature animals for tissue homeostasis and regeneration. It explains how alleged cures for ageing may invite increased cancer formation.

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Health  

This chapter focuses on the health of zoo animals. It discusses guidelines and legislation regarding the health of zoo animals, by referencing legislation in the UK and the European Union, such as the Balai Directive, European Endangered Species Programmes, and Species Survival Plans. Additionally, the chapter highlights the role of zoo staff in caring for the health of animals. It also talks about preventive medicine and lists its different methods: quarantine, health examination, vaccination, hygiene, pest control, parasite control, foot care, and enclosure management. The chapter then mentions diseases of concern for zoo animals alongside possible treatments for diseases such as rabies, salmonellosis, and tuberculosis. It explains that diseases can spread by contact with conspecifics, free-ranging species or pests.

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Cover Zoo Animals

History and philosophy of zoos  

This chapter explores the history, philosophy, and ethics of zoos. It starts with a basic definition of zoos before going through the history of ancient menageries. It mentions the Roman gladiatorial menageries and royal European menageries. Then, the chapter discusses the development of modern zoos by using various accredited zoos as examples, such as the Regent’s Park Zoo in London. It discusses the advent of ecosystem exhibits, bioparks, safari parks, and wildlife parks. Next, the chapter provides a history of aquariums. The genetic management of zoo animals to reduce inbreeding and to maintain genetic diversity may result in the animals’ sterilisation or removal from breeding groups. The chapter also looks into the conservation versus welfare ethics debate which gave rise to the argument of the anti-zoo campaign.

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Housing and husbandry  

This chapter looks at the accommodation and maintenance of animals in zoos. It explores the advancements in enclosure designs that cover the needs of animals, keepers, and zoo visitors. The chapter also examines the evolution of enclosure function, human-animal contact, basic housing, climate control, barriers, and safety. It explains the features of housing designed to aid husbandry. Husbandry is the process of caring for animals with routines and events. Additionally, the chapter explains the bottom-up and top-down approaches in relation to the impact of husbandry on captive animals.Next,it mentions the housing and husbandry guidelines that refer to zoo animals and that are compiled by a variety of agencies with differing degrees of comprehensiveness.

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Cover Animal Developmental Biology

How and why do cells talk to each other?  

This chapter looks into the language of embryo development by focusing on cell biology. It explains that cells constantly receive and process signals from their environment. The biology of the cell works to respond to information by altering differential gene expression and downstream regulatory processes to change cell behaviours and phenotypes. Cell communication is a critical tool in embryo biology, stem cell biology, regeneration, ageing, and in many human diseases. Within the developing embryo, cell communication is particularly important to convey positional information to cells relative to one another. The chapter also notes the significance of embryonic organizers, which can induce cell fate in surrounding cells.

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Introduction  

This chapter provides a brief introduction to the rest of the chapters in this book, ranging between animal management and animals’ experience in a zoo environment. It investigates the concept of the zoo and provides the definitions and features of zoos as given by the UK government legislation and the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums’ 1993 World Zoo Conservation Strategy. The chapter adds how the book uses information gained from accredited zoos and aquariums. It notes that most empirical studies about zoo animals are published in a small number of peer-reviewed journals. It also discusses the usage of scientific names and abbreviations throughout the text.

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People in zoos  

This chapter focuses on the impact and influence of people in zoos. It presents zoos as major attractions with reference to statistics on zoo visitors across the world. It also mentions the aims of zoos, which revolve around raising awareness and educating the public in subjects such as conservation and animals. The chapter then notes formal and informal ways of educating the public which include as the use of signs and keeper talks. Additionally, the chapter highlights the impact of zoo visitors on animals. Keepers are mostly perceived by animals differently than the visiting public. The chapter underlines the importance of training animals to adapt to people, referencing positive reinforcement training.

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Cover Zoo Animals

Regulatory framework  

This chapter focuses on the regulatory framework that zoos have to operate within. It gives a brief introduction on legislation, laws, and global regulations. The chapter also discusses the UK’s devolved zoo legislation. It discusses various items of zoo legislation such as the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) within the European Union (EU), the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the International Air Transport Association’s Live Animal Regulations (LARs). Additionally, the chapter talks about the EU’s EC Zoos Directive, Balai Directive, Secretary of State’s Standards of Modern Zoo Practice (SSSMZP), and Zoo Licensing Act 1981. The chapter then gives an overview into zoo legislations outside Europe.

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Research  

This chapter discusses zoo research. It highlights the significance of zoo research with reference to the discovery of political behaviours in chimpanzees. Moreover, the chapter notes the various ways that research is being carried out in zoos such as applied studies, field-based conservation, and operational researches. It also mentions the research conducted by zoo staff such as collaborations, routine data collection, and zoo records. The chapter then presents the methodological difficulties that affect zoo research and raises frequent questions asked amidst behavioural research. There is a lack of data independence in zoos especially in terms of time sampling, animals in the same enclosure, and activity budgets.

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Cover Animal Developmental Biology

The secret lives of stem cells  

This chapter focuses on stem cells, which are a special type of cell capable of being highly proliferative and differentiating into a variety of cell types. Stem cell biology provides insight into many aspects of living organisms, such as embryo development, tissue repair and regeneration, cancer treatment, and ageing. Throughout embryo development, different populations of embryonic stem cells contribute to various aspects of the growing organism. In addition to their natural roles in the body, stem cells have many potential applications for research and clinical therapies. The chapter also notes that cancer stem cells may represent a sub-population of abnormally functioning stem cells.

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Small population management  

This chapter focuses on small population management. It starts by examining the concept behind reproductive biology and then discusses genetics and endocrinology. Next, the chapter look at various relationships between animals such as mating systems, breeding, and parenting, while exploring the issues and constraints on reproduction in captivity. It notes behaviour competence as a way to describe the ability of an animal to express appropriate behaviour in a given situation. It then explains the process of monitoring the reproductive status of animals in captivity by referencing invasive and non-invasive methods. It looks at the usage of reproductive technology to help with animal reproduction such as artificial insemination (AI), in vitro fertilization (IVF), and embryo transfer. Additionally, the chapter tackles how to manipulate the reproduction of exotic animals.