This chapter introduces the major blood-borne parasites that cause disease in humans and looks at their parasitic life cycles. It talks about how morphological characteristics are important for accurate diagnosis, and it covers laboratory tests that are available to biomedical scientists for the detection of blood parasites. It also describes the appearances of parasites in Romanowsky-stained blood films. The chapter elaborates that blood-borne parasites target specific organs and species for different stages of their life cycles, noting that the nature of each life cycle and the target organs involved dictate the clinical symptoms of each infection. It mentions eosinophilia, which is a likely haematological effect of arthropods such as head lice and scabies mites.
Chapter
Blood-borne parasites
Gary Moore
Chapter
Haematology
Gillian L. Allison
This chapter examines the significance of haematology. It defines haematology as a branch of medicine that is involved with the study of blood, blood-forming organs, and blood diseases. Haematology is also about their prevention and treatment. The process of haemostasis prevents excessive loss of blood and is essential for maintaining life. Blood disorders can arise from defects in blood vessels or from abnormalities in the blood itself and include bleeding disorders, platelet disorders, haemophilia, and anaemia. The chapter explores the ABO and rhesus (Rh) systems and shows that they are the most important blood groups used for blood typing for transfusion since not all blood groups are compatible and eventually lead to agglutination.
Chapter
Haemopoiesis and the bone marrow
Andrew Blann
This chapter outlines the origin and development of blood cells, which is the process of haemopoiesis. It explains that haemopoiesis is the regulated development of blood cells as they progress from being precursor stem cells in the bone marrow to fully functioning mature cells found in the blood. It also stresses the importance of learning about haemopoiesis as it is the key to understanding several pathological processes, including anaemia, autoimmunity, and leukaemia. The chapter lists the major components of bone marrow and describes the mechanisms of haemopoiesis, including the significance of growth factors. It explores the complex nature of the molecular genetics of blood cell development and the value of the analysis of bone marrow.
Chapter
The circulation
This chapter examines the detailed physiology of systemic circulation. It deals with the relationship between pressure and flow in circulation and looks at the factors that regulate blood flow through particular tissue beds. It also discusses hypertension, and the specific features of several regional circulations, namely that of the heart, the skin, the skeletal muscles, and the brain. The chapter reviews specific adaptations of the blood supply to the respiratory, renal, and gastrointestinal systems. The flow of blood through any part of the circulation is driven by the difference in pressure between the arteries that supply the region in question and the veins that drain it.
Chapter
Major haematology parameters and basic techniques
Andrew Blann, Gary Moore, and Gavin Knight
This chapter explores certain aspects of haematology, detailing principal haematology tests, such as the full blood count, and basic techniques that are used to define particular indices, such as haemoglobin. It highlights the importance of different anticoagulants and glass or plastic tubes for the different blood tests requested. It also covers major haematology techniques such as spectrometry, microscopy, light scatter, impedance technology, and calibration. The chapter emphasizes the major components of the full blood count, which include the red blood cell indices, the white blood cell indices, and platelets. It describes the differences in the values of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate and plasma viscosity, including the important aspects of the micronutrients iron, vitamin B12, folate, and plasma proteins such as transferrin and ferritin.
Chapter
The properties of blood
This chapter describes blood as a vital vehicle of communication between the tissues of multicellular organisms. It covers the numerous functions of the blood, such as carrying oxygen from the lungs to the other body tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Blood consists of a fluid called plasma in which are suspended the red cells or erythrocytes, white cells or leukocytes, and platelets or thrombocytes. The chapter demonstrates the nature of the suspension by centrifuging a sample of whole blood in a test-tube at ≈2000 × g for 5–10 minutes. After such treatment, the heavier red cells are packed at the bottom of the tube while the plasma is seen above them as a clear pale-yellow fluid.
Chapter
Normal haemostasis
Gary Moore
This chapter outlines the processes that cause blood to clot in a controlled manner and presents an overview of the interplay between the various components. It explains the importance of effective haemostasis and the interplay between its elements. It lists the major components of haemostatic mechanisms. It also describes the mechanisms of primary and secondary haemostasis and fibrinolysis. The chapter details the crucial functions of the mechanisms of haemostasis, such as maintaining the blood contained within the vasculature in a fluid state and removing the blood clot upon completion of wound healing. It elaborates how haemostatic mechanisms maintain the fluidity of circulating blood and are essentially anticoagulant in nature.
Chapter
Blood cell genesis: red cell, white cell and platelet families
Gavin Knight
This chapter evaluates the types of blood cell found within peripheral blood. It begins by explaining blood cell production and the structure of the bone marrow. The red colouration of our blood is derived from the red blood cells, also called erythrocytes, and in particular the intracellular respiratory pigment haemoglobin. Meanwhile, our capacity to fight infection comes from heterogeneous populations of white blood cells, also called leucocytes, with each population having a different function. Under the umbrella term of white blood cells are three types of cell characterized by the types of granule within their cytoplasm. These cells are broadly called granulocytes, and more specifically are neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. The chapter then looks at stem cells, haemopoiesis, erythropoiesis, thrombopoiesis, haemostasis, granulopoiesis, and monopoiesis.
Chapter
The microcirculation and lymphatic system
This chapter highlights the chief function of circulation, which is the exchange of fluid, nutrients, and metabolites between the blood and tissues. It details how blood flows from the arterioles to the venules via the capillaries, which are the main exchange vessels. In the course of tissue exchange, a small volume of fluid passes from the capillaries to the interstitial space. The chapter outlines the basic organization of the lymphatic system and its role in the regulation of the volume of the interstitial fluid. The arterioles that branch directly from the arteries are known as primary arterioles, and they are extensively innervated by sympathetic nerve fibres.
Chapter
Introduction to haematology
Gary Moore, Gavin Knight, Andrew Blann, and Alexis Henley
This chapter introduces haematology, which is the science of the study of blood. The chapter looks at its relation to other disciplines in pathology. It discusses haematology in the wider aspects of health care, and it outlines how haematologists relate to colleagues working in other disciplines within pathology, in hospitals, and with the professional bodies. It also explains the key aspects of the science of haematology and the role of the scientist in the haematology laboratory and in the provision of health care. The chapter describes the haematology laboratory in a healthcare setting, which is concerned with diagnosing and monitoring the management of diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs. It clarifies that blood is a dynamic and crucial fluid that provides molecular and cellular transport and many regulatory functions.
Chapter
Exercise Physiology
This chapter considers the effects of exercise on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. During exercise, blood flow is redistributed to active tissue from other systems, which may affect their function. Thus, exercise physiology involves studying the effect of exercise, with or without the addition of other stressors, on systems, organs, and tissues. Moreover, understanding the effects of exercise on physiological function can result in strategies to enhance adaptation to an exercise stimulus and lead to further improvements in function. The chapter cites the critical significance of the regulation of blood pH via the integrated response of buffering systems, the respiratory system, and the renal system to ensure normal physiological function.
Chapter
Exercise Physiology
This chapter considers the effects of exercise on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. During exercise, blood flow is redistributed to active tissue from other systems, which may affect their function. Thus, exercise physiology involves studying the effect of exercise, with or without the addition of other stressors, on systems, organs, and tissues. Moreover, understanding the effects of exercise on physiological function can result in strategies to enhance adaptation to an exercise stimulus and lead to further improvements in function. The chapter cites the critical significance of the regulation of blood pH via the integrated response of buffering systems, the respiratory system, and the renal system to ensure normal physiological function.
Book
Dr Gary W. Moore, Gavin Knight, and Dr Andrew D. Blann
Haematology is composed of five parts. The first part acts as an introduction to the topic and looks at major haematology parameters and techniques as well as haemopoiesis and bone marrow. The second part looks at red blood cells, white blood cells, and anaemia. The third part covers haematological malignancies and introduces classification systems. The fourth part considers normal haemostasis and examines bleeding disorders, thrombophilia, acquired disorders of haemostasis, and anticoagulation. Finally, the text ends with different case studies in haematology.
Chapter
White blood cells in health and disease
Gavin Knight
This chapter outlines the main types of white blood cell (WBC) encountered in the peripheral blood, their development, structure, and function. It describes the particular function of neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils as WBC species, and it highlights their precursors. It also demonstrates how to suggest a differential diagnosis for a patient based on the way in which the WBCs are represented in the full blood count and their appearance using microscopy. The chapter clarifies that WBCs are responsible for immunity through phagocytic means, through the production of antibodies that help in the destruction of foreign bodies entering the human system, or through cytotoxic mechanisms. It talks about lymphocyte species that are involved in adaptive immunity as they adapt to the specific antigens encountered.
Chapter
Blood cultures
Derek Law
This chapter focuses on blood cultures, which are extremely important clinical samples that are requested by clinicians when the signs and symptoms suggest the possibility of bacteraemia or septicaemia. Because of the importance of obtaining rapid results with blood cultures, this is one area of microbiology where automation is commonplace. The chapter then explores the different blood culture methods, outlining the procedures for sample taking, transport, and processing. A blood culture involves taking a sample of blood from a patient and inoculating the blood into a blood culture bottle; the bottle is then transported to the laboratory for incubation. The chapter explains the different procedures for dealing with negative and positive bottles. It also looks at bacterial pathogens, false-positive results, and specialized testing for endocarditis.
Chapter
Other Considerations
This chapter looks at blood glucose, which is the primary energy source for cells in the brain and the central nervous system and the only energy source for red blood cells. It details how an hour of heavy continuous exercise training, competing in a team sport, or a 30-second sprint-training intervals can reduce muscle glycogen concentration by more than 60%. It also examines carbohydrates that are converted by digestive enzymes to the six-carbon sugar, glucose, before they enter the glycolytic pathway or be stored as glycogen. The chapter talks about nutritionists that have derived a numerical scale known as the glycemic index (GI), a numerical scale developed by nutritionists which rates various foods by how quickly and to what extent they increase blood glucose. It refers to international competitions wherein athletes must travel by air across a number of time zones to participate.
Chapter
Thromboxane antagonists
This chapter defines thromboxane A2 as a naturally occurring substance that has the undesirable effects of bronchoconstriction, aggregation of the blood platelets, and constriction of the blood vessels whenever it is released in the body. The inhibition of the effects of thromboxane A2 could lead to a potential treatment for circulatory or respiratory disorders. The chapter discusses a series of thromboxane antagonists that have been developed in ICI. These have similar structures to thromboxane A2 and are therefore able to block the relevant receptor site in the body. The chapter highlights that the synthetic challenge for a compound to be viable as a pharmaceutical agent is achieving stereochemical control using methods that can be operated on a larger scale. The chapter covers different compounds that were synthesized in small quantities using a route that enabled the synthesis of many analogues for biological evaluation.
Chapter
Water and Salt Physiology
Introduction and Mechanisms
This chapter provides an overview of water and salt physiology. It explores the importance and relationships of animal body fluids, citing that body fluids represent 60% of the body weight of adult humans and mature animals. Some animals regulate the composition of their blood plasma through osmotic regulation, ionic regulation, and volume regulation. The chapter then details the living habitat of animals in natural aquatic environments and natural terrestrial environments. The specific composition of food and drinking water often has major implications for the water-salt physiology of animals living in their natural environments. The chapter looks at the case of organs working on blood regulations, and shows that animals living in their natural environments routinely experience circumstances that tend to change their blood composition.
Chapter
Blood and its diseases
This chapter looks at blood and its diseases. Blood is an organ linked directly to all other tissues and organs via the vascular system and is composed of three different types of cells: red cells, white cells, and platelets. The chapter then details the role of the haematology laboratory, which offers a comprehensive panel of tests and procedures of great significance to the diagnosis and management of many diseases. It discusses the aetiology, presentation, and treatment of blood cancer, anaemia, and disorders of haemostasis. Finally, the chapter looks at the consequences of haemochromatosis, which is caused by hereditary haemochromatosis (HH) or blood transfusions. It also considers how blood transfusions damage organs such as the liver, heart, and pituitary.
Chapter
Clinical Use of Blood Components
Lionel Mohabir
This chapter explores the function of blood in vivo and the body's response to anaemia and bleeding. It begins with an understanding of the basic circulatory physiology and the structure and function of the components of blood. The chapter then offers an overview of the coagulation cascade, plasma fractionation, and recombinant technology. It describes the different blood components available and their appropriate and inappropriate use based on best practice national guidelines. Next, the chapter looks at the benefits of transfusion therapy and the alternatives available to using allogeneic blood. It then analyses how good communication, standards, audit, and review of product use will aid appropriate use of blood components. The chapter also presents national initiatives designed to facilitate the appropriate use of blood.
